Feb 17, 2023 · The process of protein synthesis occurs in two steps: transcription and translation. In the first step, DNA is used as a template to make a messenger RNA molecule (mRNA). The mRNA thus formed, exits the nucleus through a nuclear pore and travels to the ribosome for the next step, translation. The synthesis of proteins consumes more of a cell’s energy than any other metabolic process. In turn, proteins account for more mass than any other macromolecule of living organisms. They perform virtually every function of a cell, serving as both functional (e.g., enzymes) and structural elements. The process of translation, or protein ... Protein synthesis, or translation, begins with a process known as pre-initiation, when the small ribosmal subunit, the mRNA template, initiator factors, and a special initiator tRNA, come together. During translocation and elongation, the ribosome moves one codon 3′ down the mRNA, brings in a charged tRNA to the A site, transfers the growing ... It is so important that it is sometimes called the “central dogma.”. Through the processes of transcription and translation, information from genes is used to make proteins. Genes make proteins through two steps: transcription and translation. This process is known as gene expression. Learn more about how this process works.The process of protein synthesis on 70S ribosomes is described in detail below. The summary of the various steps in the mechanism of protein synthesis is shown in (Fig. 13). Step 1 — Transcription: One strand of DNA molecule functions as a template for the formation of mRNA. This mRNA contains the message for the protein to be synthesised.Understanding protein synthesis is paramount in studying various medical fields, from the molecular basis of genetic diseases through antibiotic development to expressing recombinant proteins as drugs or clinical laboratory reagents. As one of the foundational concepts in biology, protein synthesis is sufficiently complex that many …Understanding protein synthesis is paramount in studying various medical fields, from the molecular basis of genetic diseases through antibiotic development to expressing recombinant proteins as drugs or clinical laboratory reagents. As one of the foundational concepts in biology, protein synthesis is sufficiently complex that many …Download scientific diagram | 1: A Key steps of protein synthesis. The two key processes in protein synthesis are called transcription and translation, ...The PTC is located on the LSU and catalyzes the process of peptide bond formation. Protein synthesis can be divided into four main steps: initiation, elongation, termination, and ribosome recycling, each of which is targeted by a plethora of different antibiotics (Fig. 2) (Wilson 2009, 2014). Therefore, studies into antibiotic action during ...The Protein Synthesis Machinery. In addition to the mRNA template, many molecules and macromolecules contribute to the process of translation. The composition …Learn how the genetic code within DNA determines the proteins formed by the process of transcription and translation. Explore the structure and function of ribosomes, the …Products of Protein Synthesis: Protein synthesis is the process that makes new proteins for the cell. Proteins are needed by cells in order to build structures like the cytoskeleton, as well as perform functions like catalyzing chemical reactions. Answer and Explanation: 1Jan 31, 2023 · The steps of protein synthesis occur in different parts of the cell, specifically the following: Transcription occurs in the cell's nucleus. RNA polymerase reads the DNA code and creates a complementary RNA molecule. Translation occurs in the cytoplasm. The RNA molecule created in the transcription process is read and translated into a sequence ... The steps are illustrated in Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\). Initiation is the beginning of transcription. It occurs when the enzyme RNA polymerase binds to a region of a gene called the promoter. This signals the DNA to unwind so the enzyme can “read” the bases in one of the DNA strands. ... Relate protein synthesis and its two major phases …The translation is the second major step of protein synthesis. This occurs in the cytoplasm and involves the interaction of mRNA with ribosomes. The cellular machinery is …It is so important that it is sometimes called the “central dogma.”. Through the processes of transcription and translation, information from genes is used to make proteins. Genes make proteins through two steps: transcription and translation. This process is known as gene expression. Learn more about how this process works.Protein synthesis is the process by which cells build proteins from amino acids. It involves two main stages: transcription and translation. Transcription ...Each protein molecule close molecule A collection of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. has hundreds, or even thousands, of amino acids joined together in a unique sequence. The ...Heme is synthesized in a complex series of steps involving enzymes in the mitochondrion and in the cytosol of the cell (Figure 1). The first step in heme synthesis takes place in the mitochondrion, with the condensation of succinyl CoA and glycine by ALA synthase to form 5-aminolevulic acid (ALA). This molecule is transported to the cytosol ...The Protein Synthesis Process. Now let's look at the order of events in the synthesis of our protein from our sample mRNA: A ribosome binds to mRNA with the AUG codon in the P-site and the UUU codon in the A-site. An amino acyl-tRNA (anti-codon = UAC) with an attached methionine comes into the P-site of the ribosome.Figure 15.5.1 15.5. 1: A peptide bond links the carboxyl end of one amino acid with the amino end of another, expelling one water molecule. For simplicity in this image, only the functional groups involved in the peptide bond are shown. The R and R' designations refer to the rest of each amino acid structure. 11.1. The Role of tRNA in Protein Synthesis. Transfer RNAs play the central role in translation. They are the adaptor molecules, whose existence was predicted by Francis Crick in 1956 (Crick, 1990), which form the link between the mRNA and the polypeptide that is being synthesized.This is both a physical link, tRNAs binding to both the mRNA and …Cells express their genes by converting the genetic message into protein. This process of protein synthesis occurs in two stages - transcription and translation ...Protein synthesis begins with genes. A gene is a functional segment of DNA that provides the genetic information necessary to build a protein. Each particular gene provides the code necessary to construct a particular protein. Gene expression, which transforms the information coded in a gene to a final gene product, ultimately dictates the ... The translation is the second major step of protein synthesis. This occurs in the cytoplasm and involves the interaction of mRNA with ribosomes. The cellular machinery is responsible for protein synthesis. Ribosomes consist of two subunits, the large and small subunits, which come together around the mRNA to initiate translation.Heme is synthesized in a complex series of steps involving enzymes in the mitochondrion and in the cytosol of the cell (Figure 1). The first step in heme synthesis takes place in the mitochondrion, with the condensation of succinyl CoA and glycine by ALA synthase to form 5-aminolevulic acid (ALA). This molecule is transported to the cytosol ...Figure 15.5.1 15.5. 1: A peptide bond links the carboxyl end of one amino acid with the amino end of another, expelling one water molecule. For simplicity in this image, only the functional groups involved in the peptide bond are shown. The R and R' designations refer to the rest of each amino acid structure. The R and R’ designations refer to the rest of each amino acid structure. The synthesis of proteins consumes more of a cell’s energy than any other metabolic process. In turn, proteins account for more mass than any other component of living organisms (with the exception of water), and proteins perform virtually every function of a cell.Protein Synthesis Definition. The process of the creation of proteins is called protein synthesis. This process completes inside the cell in all organisms. In eukaryotic cells, the transcription takes place in the nucleus. Later these mRNA templates move into the cytosol where it translated into polypeptides.Protein synthesis occurs in cells through a process called translation. The genetic code for a protein, in the form of messenger RNA (mRNA), is read by a ribosome, which then assembles the appropriate sequence of amino acids according to the code. The process of translation requires the help of transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules, which deliver the ...In order for protein synthesis to occur, several essential materials must be present. One is a supply of the 20 amino acids which make up most proteins. ... Steps in the synthesis of protein beginning with the genetic …Jan 4, 2022 · Features of protein synthesis. A Basic schematic of the three major steps in protein synthesis: initiation, elongation, and termination.B A single ribosome recruited to mRNA is referred to as a ... During protein synthesis, the protein is built up one amino acid at a time. DNA contains the information that determines which amino acid comes next. DNA is made up of four different nitrogen bases: adenosine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). These bases make up the genetic code. All living things have the same genetic code.Step 3. The messenger molecule (mRNA) is fed through the ribosome 3 bases at a time. Step 4. Transfer molecules called tRNA bring the correct AA (amino acid) from the cytoplasm to the ribosome. Step 5. Transfer molecules (tRNA) drop amino acids (AA) off at the ribosome. Step 6. The AA (amino acids) are linked together to form a long protein …The mechanism by which cells turn the DNA code into a protein product is a two-step process, with an RNA molecule as the intermediate. Figure 1. The Genetic Code. DNA holds all of the genetic information necessary to build a cell’s proteins. ... DNA is housed within the nucleus, and protein synthesis takes place in the cytoplasm, thus there ...It is so important that it is sometimes called the “central dogma.”. Through the processes of transcription and translation, information from genes is used to make proteins. Genes make proteins through two steps: transcription and translation. This process is known as gene expression. Learn more about how this process works.Steps of Transcription Initiation is the beginning of transcription. It occurs when the enzyme RNA polymerase binds to a region of a gene... Elongation is the addition of nucleotides to the mRNA strand. Termination is the ending of transcription. As RNA polymerase transcribes the terminator, it ... Ribosome-mediated protein synthesis is a stepwise process that includes the steps of initiation, elongation of a polypeptide chain, termination and recycling of ribosomes [6]. Each of these steps is dependent on different sets of accessory protein factors termed initiation factors (IFs), elongation factors (EFs), release factors (RFs), and recycling …(i) Codon- anticodon reaction between mRNA and aminoacyl tRNA complex. (ii) Attachment of mRNA and smaller sub-unit of ribosome. (iii) Charging or ...Translation. Once mRNA has left the nucleus, it is directed to a ribosome to construct a protein. This process can be broken down into 6 main stages: Initiation: Ribosome attaches to the mRNA molecule at the start codon. This sequence (always AUG) signals the start of the gene to be transcribed.May 15, 2021 ... It is simply the process where a cell makes proteins. This process occurs in two steps namely transcription and translation. The site of protein ...Apr 9, 2012 · Protein synthesis. 1. Protein synthesis Made By- Dr. Nidhi Sharma Page 1. 2. •Transcription •Genetic code •tRNA •Ribosomes •Translation •Polyribosomes Page 2. 3. Transcription Page 3. 4. • Transcription, or RNA synthesis, is the process of creating an equivalent RNA copy of a sequence of DNA. May 15, 2021 ... It is simply the process where a cell makes proteins. This process occurs in two steps namely transcription and translation. The site of protein ...The R and R’ designations refer to the rest of each amino acid structure. The synthesis of proteins consumes more of a cell’s energy than any other metabolic process. In turn, proteins account for more mass than any other component of living organisms (with the exception of water), and proteins perform virtually every function of a cell.Unmodified methionine is used during the rest translation. Once protein synthesis is completed, the formyl group on methionine may be removed by peptide deformylase, and on occasion, the entire methionine residue can be further removed by the enzyme methionine aminopeptidase. Figure 26.2.1 26.2. 1: Structure of N-formylmethionine. Advertisement A protein is any chain of amino acids. An amino acid is a small molecule that acts as the building block of any cell. Carbohydrates provide cells with energy, while a...This biology video tutorial provides a basic introduction into transcription and translation which explains protein synthesis starting from DNA. Transcripti...Protein synthesis Protein synthesis is a complicated process that includes the interference of several different types of RNA molecules, Synthesis of proteins takes place in three main steps, which are:. First: Translation process. The mRNA binds to the small ribosomal subunit from the (5‾ ) end, where the first codon (AUG) is positioned …Discuss the role of ribosomes in protein synthesis. The synthesis of proteins consumes more of a cell’s energy than any other metabolic process. In turn, proteins account for more mass than any other component of living organisms (with the exception of water), and proteins perform virtually every function of a cell.Protein Synthesis Definition. The process of the creation of proteins is called protein synthesis. This process completes inside the cell in all organisms. In eukaryotic cells, the transcription takes place in the nucleus. Later these mRNA templates move into the cytosol where it translated into polypeptides.The Protein Synthesis Machinery. In addition to the mRNA template, many molecules and macromolecules contribute to the process of translation. The composition …Jun 28, 2022 · The first step involves synthesizing messenger RNA (mRNA), which then leaves the nucleus and travels into the cytoplasm where it attaches to a ribosome. At this point, the second step of translation begins where the genetic code of the mRNA molecule is read and used to create a specific protein molecule. Below, we discuss these two steps in detail. This final step, termination, is the end of polypeptide synthesis, signaled by a stop codon entering the ribosome. So, does that mean we've finally built a protein? Well, no, but we have built a ...Jul 18, 2020 · Learn how polypeptide chains are formed from coded combinations of single amino acids inside the cell. The web page explains the two steps of protein synthesis: transcription and translation, and the roles of DNA, RNA, and ribosomes. Learn how DNA provides the genetic code for proteins and how RNA acts as an intermediate messenger in protein synthesis. Explore the steps of transcription and …(i) Codon- anticodon reaction between mRNA and aminoacyl tRNA complex. (ii) Attachment of mRNA and smaller sub-unit of ribosome. (iii) Charging or ...(i) Codon- anticodon reaction between mRNA and aminoacyl tRNA complex. (ii) Attachment of mRNA and smaller sub-unit of ribosome. (iii) Charging or ...Steps or Stages of Translation/Protein Synthesis. Activation of amino acids. Initiation of polypeptide synthesis. The first step is the activation of methionine. The …Learn how ribosomes decode mRNA messages into polypeptides using tRNAs and amino acids. Explore the structure and function of ribosomes, tRNAs, and the genetic code in …The latest research on Leucine Supplements. Expert analysis on potential benefits, dosage, side effects, and more. Leucine is most often used for . Leucine is a branced-chain amino...Learn how ribosomes decode mRNA messages into polypeptides using tRNAs and amino acids. Explore the structure and function of ribosomes, tRNAs, and the genetic code in …Thus, the process of protein synthesis directly drives the transfer of growing polypeptide chains through the Sec61 channel and into the ER. As translocation proceeds, ... Subsequent steps in the secretory pathway involve vesicular transport between different compartments of the Golgi and from the Golgi to lysosomes or the plasma membrane.Jul 8, 2022 · Protein synthesis refers to the process through which cells produce proteins. Transcription and translation are the two steps. Transcription is the process through which genetic instructions in DNA are transferred to mRNA in the nucleus. It is divided into three stages: initiation, elongation, and termination. Jan 30, 2023 · The Protein Synthesis Machinery. In addition to the mRNA template, many molecules and macromolecules contribute to the process of translation. The composition of each component may vary across species; for example, ribosomes may consist of different numbers of rRNAs and polypeptides depending on the organism. The Cyberspace Administration of China wants deep synthesis providers to seek user permission before making their deepfake China’s cyberspace regulator is cracking down on deepfake...Protein synthesis represents the major route of disposal of amino acids. Amino acids are activated by binding to specific molecules of transfer RNA and ...May 1, 2020 ... Protein Synthesis · stop codon reached in mRNA · release factor binds mRNA · peptide bond is hydrolyzed and completed protein is released.Building a Protein: Translation - Translation is the process that centers on the building of a protein according to the mRNA information. Learn about translation and the role of ri...A specific transfer-RNA (tRNA) attaches to each specific amino acid and brings the amino acid to the RNA for incorporation. Figure 21.9.1 21.9. 1: Overview of protein synthesis. The first step in the process is transcription —the unfolding of DNA and the production of a messenger-RNA (mRNA) strand. This step takes place in the nucleus of the ...Discuss the role of ribosomes in protein synthesis. Figure 1. A peptide bond links the carboxyl end of one amino acid with the amino end of another, expelling one water molecule. For simplicity in this image, only the functional groups involved in the peptide bond are shown. The R and R’ designations refer to the rest of each amino acid ... Definition: the creation of protein. Table of Contents Protein synthesis is the process of creating protein molecules. In biological systems, it involves amino acid synthesis, transcription, translation, and …Connection for AP ® Courses. After the information in the gene has been transcribed to mRNA, it is ready to be translated to polypeptide. The players in translation include the mRNA template, ribosomes, tRNA molecules, amino acids, and various enzymes. Ribosomes consist of small and large subunits of protein and rRNA which bind with mRNA; many ... Advertisement A protein is any chain of amino acids. An amino acid is a small molecule that acts as the building block of any cell. Carbohydrates provide cells with energy, while a...Protein synthesis is the process in which cells build proteins. The term is sometimes used to refer only to protein translation but more often it refers to a multi-step process, beginning with amino acid synthesis and transcription of nuclear DNA into messenger RNA, which is then used as input to translation.The translation is the second major step of protein synthesis. This occurs in the cytoplasm and involves the interaction of mRNA with ribosomes. The cellular machinery is responsible for protein synthesis. Ribosomes consist of two subunits, the large and small subunits, which come together around the mRNA to initiate translation. When a cell needs to make a protein, say the enzyme to digest lactose (the sugar in milk), it needs to use/read the DNA code to make proteins. We call this process protein synthesis. Protein synthesis requires the use of DNA and all three forms of RNA to read the code and make the desired protein. This occurs in two steps:Human Biology (Wakim & Grewal) 6: DNA and Protein SynthesisLearn about the first step of protein synthesis, transcription of DNA to RNA. In this interactive tutorial, you'll explore epigenetics as a mechanism to activate or inactivate gene expression. Resource ID#: 163504 Type: Original Student TutorialCongenital protein C or S deficiency is a lack of proteins C or S in the fluid part of the blood. The proteins are natural substances that help prevent blood clots. Congenital prot...Produced during protein synthesis, the series of steps taken by cells to create a functional protein, proteins are useful in muscle building, tissue repair, and acting as enzymes.There are four organelles found in eukaryotic cells that aid in the synthesis of proteins. These organelles include the nucleus, the ribosomes, the rough endoplasmic reticulum and ...
Sep 21, 2022 · The first step of protein synthesis is transcription—the unfolding of DNA and the production of a messenger-RNA (mRNA) strand. In the second step of protein synthesis—translation—tRNA and mRNA interact to code amino acids into growing polypeptide chains. This page titled 26.14: Protein Synthesis is shared under a CK-12 license and was ... . Natural food color
Protein synthesis occurs in cells through a process called translation. The genetic code for a protein, in the form of messenger RNA (mRNA), is read by a ribosome, which then assembles the appropriate sequence of amino acids according to the code. The process of translation requires the help of transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules, which deliver the ... Jul 8, 2022 · Protein synthesis in eukaryotes is carried out by 80S ribosomes with the help of many specific translation factors. Translation comprises four major steps: initiation, elongation, termination, and ribosome recycling. In this review, we provide a comprehensive list of translation factors required for protein synthesis in yeast and higher eukaryotes and summarize the mechanisms of each ... Learn how ribosomes translate mRNA into polypeptides using tRNA and amino acids. Explore the steps, players, and examples of protein synthesis in prokaryotes and …Nov 21, 2023 · There are two main steps to protein synthesis: Transcription; Translation; Transcription. Transcription is the first step in protein synthesis. During transcription, DNA is copied to a form called ... The steps of protein synthesis occur in different parts of the cell, specifically the following: Transcription occurs in the cell's nucleus. RNA polymerase reads the DNA code and creates a complementary RNA molecule. Translation occurs in the cytoplasm. The RNA molecule created in the transcription process is read and translated …Step 6. Transfer molecules called tRNA bring the correct AA (amino acid) from the cytoplasm to the ribosome. Step 7. The AA (amino acids) are linked together to form a long protein chain. Step 8. The completed protein chain is released into the cytoplasm where Golgi bodies packages and distributes. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards ...Building a Protein: Translation - Translation is the process that centers on the building of a protein according to the mRNA information. Learn about translation and the role of ri...Discuss the role of ribosomes in protein synthesis. Figure 1. A peptide bond links the carboxyl end of one amino acid with the amino end of another, expelling one water molecule. For simplicity in this image, only the functional groups involved in the peptide bond are shown. The R and R’ designations refer to the rest of each amino acid ...Jan 18, 2018 ... Protein Synthesis enzymes and functions · Peptidyl transferase is the main enzyme used in Translation. · The enzyme's activity is to form .....Protein synthesis is thus the final stage of gene expression. However, the translation of mRNA is only the first step in the formation of a functional protein. The polypeptide chain must then fold into the appropriate three …It is so important that it is sometimes called the “central dogma.”. Through the processes of transcription and translation, information from genes is used to make proteins. Genes make proteins through two steps: transcription and translation. This process is known as gene expression. Learn more about how this process works.May 1, 2020 ... Protein Synthesis · stop codon reached in mRNA · release factor binds mRNA · peptide bond is hydrolyzed and completed protein is released.Protein synthesis Protein synthesis is a complicated process that includes the interference of several different types of RNA molecules, Synthesis of proteins takes place in three main steps, which are:. First: Translation process. The mRNA binds to the small ribosomal subunit from the (5‾ ) end, where the first codon (AUG) is positioned …Thus, the process of protein synthesis directly drives the transfer of growing polypeptide chains through the Sec61 channel and into the ER. As translocation proceeds, ... Subsequent steps in the secretory pathway involve vesicular transport between different compartments of the Golgi and from the Golgi to lysosomes or the plasma membrane.Produced during protein synthesis, the series of steps taken by cells to create a functional protein, proteins are useful in muscle building, tissue repair, and acting as enzymes.Learn how ribosomes translate mRNA into polypeptides using tRNA and amino acids. Explore the steps, players, and examples of protein synthesis in prokaryotes and …Analogy of Steps of Protein Synthesis. Analogies are away to help us remember a series of steps in a process. Protein synthesis is a complicated process involving nucleic acids, amino acids, and several cell structures. We can use a familiar process to make an analogy to remember these steps.Learn how proteins are made in two stages: transcription and translation. See how mRNA is used as a template to make a polypeptide, and how the genetic code in mRNA is read by ribosomes to make a protein. See diagrams, figures, and a video of the process. Step 3. The messenger molecule (mRNA) is fed through the ribosome 3 bases at a time. Step 4. Transfer molecules called tRNA bring the correct AA (amino acid) from the cytoplasm to the ribosome. Step 5. Transfer molecules (tRNA) drop amino acids (AA) off at the ribosome. Step 6. The AA (amino acids) are linked together to form a long protein ….
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Repeater near me | steps in protein synthesis The process of protein synthesis translates the 3-letter alphabet of nucleotide sequences on mRNA into the 20-letter alphabet of amino acids that constitute proteins. The mRNA is translated from its 5I -end to its 3I -end, producing a protein synthesized from its amino (N)-terminal end to its carboxyl (C)-terminal end.Congenital bile acid synthesis defect type 2 is a disorder characterized by cholestasis, a condition that impairs the production and release of a digestive fluid called bile from l......
You can think you can dance | The R and R’ designations refer to the rest of each amino acid structure. The synthesis of proteins consumes more of a cell’s energy than any other metabolic process. In turn, proteins account for more mass than any other component of living organisms (with the exception of water), and proteins perform virtually every function of a cell.Learn how DNA provides the genetic code for proteins and how RNA acts as an intermediate messenger in protein synthesis. Explore the steps of transcription and …Aug 24, 2021 · Protein Synthesis Definition. The process of the creation of proteins is called protein synthesis. This process completes inside the cell in all organisms. In eukaryotic cells, the transcription takes place in the nucleus. Later these mRNA templates move into the cytosol where it translated into polypeptides. ...
How to download videos from internet sites | The urine protein dipstick test measures the presence of all proteins, including albumin, in a urine sample. The urine protein dipstick test measures the presence of all proteins, ...Jan 31, 2023 · The steps of protein synthesis occur in different parts of the cell, specifically the following: Transcription occurs in the cell's nucleus. RNA polymerase reads the DNA code and creates a complementary RNA molecule. Translation occurs in the cytoplasm. The RNA molecule created in the transcription process is read and translated into a sequence ... ...
Shooting in california | May 15, 2021 ... It is simply the process where a cell makes proteins. This process occurs in two steps namely transcription and translation. The site of protein ...What is protein synthesis? Protein synthesis is a process by which cells produce new proteins. It happens in two steps: first, DNA is converted into messenger ...There are four organelles that are involved in protein synthesis. These include the nucleus, ribosomes, the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus, or the Golgi comple......
Tequila sunrise lyrics | Translation is the second phase of protein synthesis. It follows transcription, in which the information in DNA is "rewritten" into mRNA. During translation, the mRNA attaches to a ribosome. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules then "read" the mRNA code and translate the message into a sequence of amino acids. Every three nucleotides …Feb 11, 2013 · Protein Synthesis Summary. Protein synthesis is one of the most fundamental biological processes by which individual cells build their specific proteins. Within the process are involved both DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and different in their function ribonucleic acids (RNA). The process is initiated in the cell’s nucleus, where specific ... ...
Pricelime | Translation is the second phase of protein synthesis. It follows transcription, in which the information in DNA is "rewritten" into mRNA. During translation, the mRNA attaches to a ribosome. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules then "read" the mRNA code and translate the message into a sequence of amino acids. Every three nucleotides …DNA is the Genetic Material • DNA – Located in 23 pairs of chromosomes in nucleus of cell – DNA has two functions: • Replication - reproduces itself when cell divides • Information transmission – via protein synthesis From: Tortora, GJ & Grabowski SR (2000) Principles of Anatomy and Physiology (9th Ed). New York: John Wiley & Sons....